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A large irrigation system waters a vibrant green cornfield under a clear sky, stretching across the horizon. The metal structure sprays a fine mist, depicting efficient agricultural practices. Trees are faintly visible in the background.
Photo by Lumin Osity on Unsplash

Water use

Environment

Sources

[1] UNESCO, UN-Water (2020): United Nations World Water Development Report 2020:Water and Climate Change, Paris, UNESCO.
[2] FAO (2019): Water use in livestock production systems and supply chains – Guidelines for assessment (Version 1). Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance (LEAP) Partnership. Rome.
[3] United Nations (2024) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2024: Water for Prosperity and Peace. UNESCO, Paris.
[4] Springmann, M. (2024): A multicriteria analysis of meat and milk alternatives from nutritional, health, environmental, and cost perspectives. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121(50), e2319010121. Doi:10.1073/pnas.2319010121.
[5] Poore, J. & T. Nemecek (2018): Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science 360(6392), 987–992. doi:10.1126/science.aaq0216
[6] Mekonnen, M. M. & A. Y. Hoekstra (2011): The green, blue and gray water footprint of crops and derived crop products. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 15(5), 1577–1600. doi:10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011
[7] Mekonnen, M. M. & A. Y. Hoekstra (2012): A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products. Ecosystems 15(3), 401–415. doi:10.1007/s10021-011-9517-8
[8] Harris, F., C. Moss, E. J. M. Joy, et al. (2019): The Water Footprint of Diets: A Global Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Advances in Nutrition doi:10.1093/advances/nmz091
[9] Vanham, D., S. Comero, B. M. Gawlik, et al. (2018): The water footprint of different diets within European sub-national geographical entities. Nature Sustainability 1(9), 518–525. doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0133-x
[10] Scarborough, P., M. Clark, L. Cobiac, et al. (2023): Vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters in the UK show discrepant environmental impacts. Nature Food doi:10.1038/s43016-023-00795-w

Further literature

  • Vanham, D., M. M. Mekonnen & A. Y. Hoekstra (2013): The water footprint of the EU for different diets. Ecological Indicators 32 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.02.029
  • Jalava, M., M. Kummu, M. Porkka, et al. (2014): Diet change—a solution to reduce water use? Environmental Research Letters 9(7), doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/7/074016
  • Vanham, D. & G. Bidoglio (2014): The water footprint of agricultural products in European river basins. Environmental Research Letters 9(6), 064007. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/6/064007
  • Vanham, D., T. N. Mak & B. M. Gawlik (2016): Urban food consumption and associated water resources: The example of Dutch cities. Science of The Total Environment 565 232–239. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.172
  • Vanham, D., S. del Pozo, A. G. Pekcan, et al. (2016): Water consumption related to different diets in Mediterranean cities. Science of The Total Environment 573 96–105. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.111
  • Rosi, A., P. Mena, N. Pellegrini, et al. (2017): Environmental impact of omnivorous, ovo-lacto-vegetarian, and vegan diet. Scientific Reports 7(1), 6105. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06466-8
  • Mekonnen, M. M. & J. Fulton (2018): The effect of diet changes and food loss reduction in reducing the water footprint of an average American. Water International 43(6), 860–870. doi:10.1080/02508060.2018.1515571
  • Blackstone, N. T., N. H. El-Abbadi, M. S. McCabe, et al. (2018): Linking sustainability to the healthy eating patterns of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans: a modeling study. The Lancet Planetary Health 2(8), e344–e352. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30167-0
  • Vanham, D., S. Comero, B. M. Gawlik, et al. (2018): The water footprint of different diets within European sub-national geographical entities. Nature Sustainability 1(9), 518–525. doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0133-x
  • Chen, C., A. Chaudhary & A. Mathys (2019): Dietary Change Scenarios and Implications for Environmental, Nutrition, Human Health and Economic Dimensions of Food Sustainability. Nutrients 11(4), 856. doi:10.3390/nu11040856
  • Harris, F., C. Moss, E. J. M. Joy, et al. (2020): The Water Footprint of Diets: A Global Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Advances in Nutrition 11(2), 375–386. doi:10.1093/advances/nmz091
  • Tompa, O., Z. Lakner, J. Oláh, et al. (2020): Is the Sustainable Choice a Healthy Choice?—Water Footprint Consequence of Changing Dietary Patterns. Nutrients 12(9), 2578. doi:10.3390/nu12092578
  • Vanham, D., S. Guenther, M. Ros-Baró, et al. (2021): Which diet has the lower water footprint in Mediterranean countries? Resources, Conservation and Recycling 171 105631. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105649
  • Kassem, R., M. R. Jepsen & S. P. Salhofer (2021): The water consumption of different diets in Denmark. Journal of Cleaner Production 286 124938. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124938
  • Arrieta, E. M., C. G. Fischer, S. Aguiar, et al. (2022): The health, environmental, and economic dimensions of future dietary transitions in Argentina. Sustainability Science doi:10.1007/s11625-021-01087-7 doi:10.1007/s11625-021-01087-7
  • Frola, E. N., A. Cavaliere, E. De Marchi, et al. (2024): Water scarcity and consumer behavior: an analysis of diet-related water footprint. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 39 e24. doi:10.1017/S1742170524000140



Frequently asked questions

What are the key facts about food and water use?

70% of the earth’s available fresh water goes to agriculture; 20% is used to grow feed crops for farmed animals. Only 0.5% of all water on Earth is available fresh water. The world faces a projected 40% shortfall in fresh-water supply by 2030. Moving toward a plant-based diet can cut your water footprint by 25–55%. In a UK example, medium meat-eaters use about 780 liters a day, versus 530 for vegetarians and 410 for vegans. A liter of cow’s milk needs about 628 liters of water, versus roughly 28 for soy drink.

How much water does food production use?

Agriculture is by far the largest user of fresh water: 70% of the earth’s available fresh water goes to agriculture, and 20% is used specifically for growing feed crops for farmed animals. Only 0.5% of all water on Earth is available fresh water, and the world faces a projected 40% shortfall in fresh-water supply by 2030.

Does a plant-based diet use less water than a meat-based diet?

Yes. Moving toward a plant-based diet can cut your water footprint by 25–55%. In a UK example, medium meat-eaters use about 780 liters a day, falling to 530 for vegetarians and 410 for vegans. Individual products vary widely too — a liter of cow’s milk needs about 628 liters of water, versus roughly 28 for soy drink.

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